Metabolic Discrimination between Adventitious Roots and Standard Medicinal Part of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. Using FT-IR Spectroscopy.

This study aims to examine the metabolic discrimination between in vitro grown adventitious roots and the standard medicinal parts of Atractylodes macrocephala. To achieve this goal, firstly, in vitro culture conditions of adventitious roots such as indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) concentrations, types of media, inorganic salt strength of culture medium, and elicitor types and concentrations were optimized. The optimal culture conditions for proliferation of adventitious roots was found to consist of Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium containing 5 mg L-1 IBA. Whole cell extracts from adventitious roots and the standard medicinal parts of A. macrocephala were subjected to Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) from FT-IR spectral data showed that adventitious roots and standard medicinal parts were clearly distinguished in the PCA and PLS-DA score plot. Furthermore, the overall metabolite pattern from adventitious roots was changed depending on the dose-dependent manner of chemicals. These results suggest that FT-IR spectroscopy can be applied as an alternative tool for the screening of higher metabolic root lines and for discriminating metabolic similarity between in vitro grown adventitious roots and the standard medicinal parts. In addition, the adventitious roots proliferation system established in this study can be directly applied as an alternative means for the commercial production of A. macrocephala.

Greenhouse gas emissions from advanced oxidation processes in the degradation of bisphenol A: a comparative study of the H2O2/UV, TiO2 /UV, and ozonation processes.

To estimate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and degradation rate constants (kobs) from H2O2/UV-C, TiO2/UV-C, and ozonation processes in the degradation of bisphenol A (BPA), the laboratory scale experiments were conducted. In the H2O2/UV-C process, the fastest degradation rate constant (kobs = 0.353 min-1) was observed at 4 mM of H2O2, while the minimum GHG emission was achieved at 3 mM of H2O2. In the TiO2/UV-C process, the fastest rate constant (kobs = 0.126 min-1) was achieved at 2000 mg/L of TiO2, while the minimum GHG emission was observed at 400 mg/L of TiO2. In the ozonation process, GHG emissions were minimal at 5 mg/L of O3, but the degradation rate constant kept on increasing as the O3 concentration increased. There were three major types of GHG emissions in the advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). In the ozonation process, most of the GHG emissions were generated by electricity consumption. TiO2/UV-C process accounted for a significant portion of the GHGs generated by the use of chemicals. Finally, the H2O2/UV-C process produced similar GHG emissions from both chemical inputs and electricity consumption. The carbon footprint calculation revealed that for the treatment of 1 m3 of water contaminated with 0.04 mM BPA, the H2O2/UV-C process had the smallest carbon footprint (0.565 kg CO2 eq/m3), followed by the TiO2/UV-C process (3.445 kg CO2 eq/m3) and the ozonation process (3.897 kg CO2 eq/m3). Our results imply that the increase in removal rate constant might not be the optimal parameter for reducing GHG emissions during the application of these processes. Graphical abstract .

Occurrence and Fate of Micropollutants in Private Wastewater Treatment Facility (WTF) and Their Impact on Receiving Water.

This study investigated the occurrence and removals of micropollutants in the sewage treatment tank (STT) which is a typical private wastewater treatment facility used in the rural communities in Korea, and their impact on receiving water. STTs were selected in eight provinces to examine the regional difference in the composition of micropollutant occurrence. We measured ten selected micropollutants in influents and effluents of STTs, as well as upstream and downstream of its receiving surface water. The dominant micropollutants in the influent of the STTs were caffeine (13,346 ng/L), acetaminophen (11,331 ng/L), ibuprofen (1440 ng/L), and naproxen (1313 ng/L), in agreement with the amounts produced annually in Korea. In the effluent, caffeine (1912 ng/L), acetaminophen (1586 ng/L), naproxen (475 ng/L), and ibuprofen (389 ng/L) were detected in relatively high concentrations. The composition of micropollutants in STT influents showed little regional variation by provinces, suggesting that the consumption pattern of these micropollutants did not show regional variation. The removal efficiencies of the selected micropollutants at the STTs ranged from 12% (carbamazepine) to 88% (acetaminophen), lower than typical removal by sewage treatment plants (STPs). This result is probably due to the automatic operation systems and simple treatment processes in STTs compared with STPs. The concentrations of selected micropollutants upstream of the receiving water were generally lower compared with those observed downstream, indicating that effluent from STTs was the main source. The per capita discharge loads of STTs and annual emissions rates (kg/year) from private wastewater treatment facilities were estimated for the selected micropollutants.

In-depth Investigation of Hg2Br2 Crystal Growth and Evolution.

Physical vapor transport (PVT) has frequently been adopted for the synthesis of mercurous bromide (Hg2Br2) single crystals for acousto-optic modulators. However, thus far, very few in-depth studies have been conducted that elucidate the growth process of the Hg2Br2 single crystal. This paper reports an in-depth investigation regarding the crystal growth and evolution behavior of the Hg2Br2 crystal with facet growth mode. Based on the experimental and simulation results, the temperature profile conditions concerning the seed generation and seed growth could be optimized. Next, the PVT-grown Hg2Br2 crystals (divided into single crystal and quasi-single crystal regions) were characterized using various analysis techniques. The single-crystal Hg2Br2 was found to possess a more uniform strain than that of the quasi-single crystal through a comparison of the X-ray diffraction data. Meanwhile, the binding energy states and electron backscatter diffraction images of the as-synthesized Hg2Br2 crystals were similar, regardless of the crystal type. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses provided information on the atomic vibration mode and atomic structures of the two kinds of samples. The synergistic combination of the simulation and experimental results used to verify the growth mechanism facilitates the synthesis of high-quality Hg2Br2 crystals for potential acousto-optic tunable filter device applications.

Effect of nitrate, carbonate/bicarbonate, humic acid, and H2O2 on the kinetics and degradation mechanism of Bisphenol-A during UV photolysis.

In this study, the effects of natural water components (nitrate, carbonate/bicarbonate, and humic acid) on the kinetics and degradation mechanisms of bisphenol A (BPA) during UV-C photolysis and UV/H2O2 reaction were examined. The presence of NO3- (0.04-0.4 mM) and CO32-/HCO3- (0.4-4 mM) ions increased BPA degradation during UV photolysis. Humic acid less than 3 mg/L promoted BPA degradation, but greater than 3 mg/L of humic acid inhibited BPA degradation. During the UV/H2O2 reaction, all water matrix components acted as radical scavengers in the order of humic acid > CO32-/HCO3- > NO3-. All of the degradation reactions agreed with the pseudo-first-order kinetics. While eight byproducts (m/z = 122, 136, 139, 164, 181, 244, 273, 289) were identified in UV-C/NO3- photolysis reaction, four (m/z = 122, 136, 164, 244) and three byproducts (m/z = 122, 136, 164) were observed during UV-C/NO3-/CO32-/HCO3- and UV-C/CO32-/HCO3- reactions. Nitrogenated and hydrogenated byproducts were first observed during the UV-C/NO3- photolysis, but only hydrogenated byproducts as adducts were detected during the UV-C/NO3-/CO32-/HCO3- photolysis. Nitrogenated and hydrogenated byproducts were formed in the early stage of degradation by OH or NO2 radicals, and these byproducts were subsequently degraded into smaller compounds with further reaction during UV-C/NO3- and UV-C/NO3-/CO32-/HCO3- reactions. In contrast, BPA was directly degraded into smaller compounds by ß-scission of the isopropyl group by CO3-/HCO3 radicals during UV-C/CO32-/HCO3- reaction. Our results imply that the water components can change the degradation mechanism of BPA during UV photolysis.

Characterization of a novel yeast species Metschnikowia persimmonesis KCTC 12991BP (KIOM G15050 type strain) isolated from a medicinal plant, Korean persimmon calyx (Diospyros kaki Thumb).

The yeast strain Metschnikowia persimmonesis Kang and Choi et al., sp. nov. [type strain KIOM_G15050 = Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC) 12991BP] was isolated from the stalk of native persimmon cultivars (Diospyros kaki Thumb) obtained from different regions of South Korea and was characterized phenotypically, genetically, and physiologically. The isolate grew between 4 and 40 °C (optimum temperature: 24-28 °C), pH 3-8 (pH optimum = 6.0), and in 0-4% NaCl solution (with optimal growth in absence of NaCl). It also exhibited strong antibiotic and antimicrobial activities. Morphologically, cells were characterized by the presence of long, needle-shaped ascospores. Based on 18S ribosomal DNA gene sequence analysis, the new species was found to belong to the genus Metschnikowia as a sister clade of Metschnikowia fructicola. We therefore conclude that this yeast isolate from D. kaki is a new member of the genus Metschnikowia and propose the name M. persimmonesis sp. nov. This strain has been deposited in the KCTC for future reference. This discovery provides a basis for future research on M. persimmonesis sp. nov., including its possible contribution to the medicinal properties of the host persimmon plant.

Traditional Indian medicine (TIM) and traditional Korean medicine (TKM): aconstitutional-based concept and comparison.

Traditional and complementary medicine (T&CM) plays an integral role in providing health care worldwide. It is based on sound fundamental principles and centuries of practices. This study compared traditional Indian medicine (TIM) and traditional Korean medicine (TKM) basing on data obtained from peer reviewed articles, respective government institutional reports and World Health Organization reports. Despite the fact that TIM and TKM have individual qualities that are unique from each other including different histories of origin, they share a lot in common. Apart from Homeopathy in TIM, both systems are hinged on similar principle of body constitutional-based concept and similar disease diagnosis methods of mainly auscultation, palpation, visual inspection, and interrogation. Similarly, the treatment methods of TIM and TKM follow similar patterns involving use of medicinal herbs, moxibustion, acupuncture, cupping, and manual therapy. Both T&CM are majorly practiced in well-established hospitals by T&CM doctors who have undergone an average of 6-7 years of specialized trainings. However, unlike TIM which has less insurance coverage, the popularity of TKM is majorly due to its wide national insurance coverage. These two medical traditions occupy increasingly greater portion of the global market. However, TIM especially Ayurveda has gained more global recognition than TKM although the emergence of Sasang Constitutional Medicine in TKM is beginning to become more popular. This comparative analysis between TIM and TKM may provide vital and insightful contribution towards constitutional-based concept for further development and future studies in T&CM.

The Complete Chloroplast Genome Sequences of Fritillaria ussuriensis Maxim. and Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don, and Comparative Analysis with Other Fritillaria Species.

The genus Fritillaria belongs to the widely distributed Liliaceae. The bulbs of Fritillaria, F. ussuriensis and F. cirrhosa are valuable herbaceous medicinal ingredients. However, they are still used indiscriminately in herbal medicine. Identification and molecular phylogenic analysis of Fritillaria species are therefore required. Here, we report the complete chloroplast (CP) genome sequences of F. ussuriensis and F. cirrhosa. The two Fritillaria CP genomes were 151,524 and 151,083 bp in length, respectively, and each included a pair of inverted repeated regions (52,678 and 52,156 bp) that was separated by a large single copy region (81,732 and 81,390 bp), and a small single copy region (17,114 and 17,537 bp). A total of 111 genes in F. ussuriensis and 112 in F. cirrhosa comprised 77 protein-coding regions in F. ussuriensis and 78 in F. cirrhosa, 30 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and four ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. The gene order, content, and orientation of the two Fritillaria CP genomes exhibited the general structure of flowering plants, and were similar to those of other Fritillaria species. Comparison of the six Fritillaria species' CP genomes indicated seven highly divergent regions in intergenic spacers and in the matK, rpoC1, rpoC2, ycf1, ycf2, ndhD, and ndhF coding regions. We established the position of the six species through phylogenic analysis. The complete chloroplast genome sequences of the two Fritillaria species and a comparison study are useful genomic information for identifying and for studying the phylogenetic relationship among Fritillaria species within the Liliaceae.

Identification and functional analysis of pheromone and receptor genes in the B3 mating locus of Pleurotus eryngii.

Pleurotus eryngii has recently become a major cultivated mushroom; it uses tetrapolar heterothallism as a part of its reproductive process. Sexual development progresses only when the A and B mating types are compatible. Such mating incompatibility occasionally limits the efficiency of breeding programs in which crossing within loci-shared strains or backcrossing strategies are employed. Therefore, understanding the mating system in edible mushroom fungi will help provide a short cut in the development of new strains. We isolated and identified pheromone and receptor genes in the B3 locus of P. eryngii and performed a functional analysis of the genes in the mating process by transformation. A genomic DNA library was constructed to map the entire mating-type locus. The B3 locus was found to contain four pheromone precursor genes and four receptor genes. Remarkably, receptor PESTE3.3.1 has just 34 amino acid residues in its C-terminal cytoplasmic region; therefore, it seems likely to be a receptor-like gene. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR (real-time qRT-PCR) revealed that most pheromone and receptor genes showed significantly higher expression in monokaryotic cells than dikaryotic cells. The pheromone genes PEphb3.1 and PEphb3.3 and the receptor gene PESTE3.3.1 were transformed into P5 (A3B4). The transformants were mated with a tester strain (A4B4), and the progeny showed clamp connections and a normal fruiting body, which indicates the proposed role of these genes in mating and fruiting processes. This result also confirms that PESTE3.3.1 is a receptor gene. In this study, we identified pheromone and receptor genes in the B3 locus of P. eryngii and found that some of those genes appear to play a role in the mating and fruiting processes. These results might help elucidate the mechanism of fruiting differentiation and improve breeding efficiency.

Antioxidant activities and polyphenol content of Morus alba leaf extracts collected from varying regions.

Morus alba leaf (MAL), also known as Mori folium when used as a herbal medicine, has traditionally been used in Chinese medicine to treat diabetes, protect the liver and lower blood pressure. In the present study, MAL was collected from various regions in Korea and the antioxidant activity, total polyphenol contents and main flavonoid contents was investigated. MAL were collected from various areas in Korea and extracted with methanol. The total polyphenol contents were evaluated based on the Folin-Ciocalteu method using a spectrophotometer. The antioxidant activities were determined by a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging assay method. The identification and quantification of three main polyphenol constituents was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography/diode array detection analysis. The total polyphenol contents of the MAL extracts varied between 23.2 and 55.4 mg gallic acid equivalent/g. The radical scavenging activity (SC50) of the MAL extracts ranged between 584 and 139 µg/ml. Three flavonol compounds (rutin, isoquercitrin and astragalin) were identified as main polyphenol constituents. These contents varied from 0.68-12.7, 0.69-9.86 and 0.05-3.55 mg/g, respectively. The average of the total was 9.52 mg/g, which was similar to that of commercial MAL extracts (10.58 mg/g). Among the three flavonol compounds, isoquercitrin showed the highest content (5.68 mg/g) followed by rutin (3.1 mg/g) and astragalin (2.4 mg/g). In the present study, the radical scavenging activity, polyphenol content and flavonol content of MAL were significantly different according to growing area. These three flavonol compounds were identified as main constituents of MAL in this study, and are known to have various biological activities, as well as strong antioxidant activities. Therefore, the sum of these three flavonol compounds was indicated as a good marker for the quality control of Mori folium.

Antiplatelet and antithrombotic effect of Phyllostachys pubescens leaves and Mume Fructus combination.

BACKGROUND: Agents currently used for the treatment and prevention of thrombosis have a number of side effects. We conducted this study to develop antithrombotic agents from herbs that are used in food. METHODS: The 80% (v/v) ethanol extracts of Phyllostachys pubescens leaf (PL) and Mume Fructus (MF) and their combinations-2:1 (PM21), 1:1 (PM11), and 1:2 (PM12)-were evaluated on rat platelet aggregation induced by adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in vitro and on arteriovenous shunt thrombosis after 3 days of oral treatment in rats in vivo. RESULTS: At 100 µg/mL, PM21 and PM11 inhibited in vitro ADP-induced aggregation by 44.0 ± 4.3% and 30.0 ± 3.2%, respectively, whereas PL, MF, and PM12 weakly or scarcely inhibited ADP-induced aggregation by 3.9 ± 3.2%, 13.0 ± 2.7%, and 5.2 ± 1.3%, respectively. The IC50 values of PM21 on ADP-, collagen-, and thrombin-induced platelet aggregations were 135.6 ± 7.4 µg/mL, 142.7 ± 5.8 µg/mL, and 186.5 ± 9.7 µg/mL, respectively. In an in vivo rat arteriovenous-shunt thrombosis model, thrombus weight was significantly decreased after the oral administration of 400 mg/kg PL (27.8 ± 3.0%, p < 0.01) or MF (35.2 ± 2.1%, p < 0.01), and with a good accord to the in vitro results, the combination of PL and MF in the ratio of 2:1, PM21 (60.9 ± 1.2%, p < 0.001), showed a superior antithrombotic effect to those of individual extracts. At dosages of 200 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, and 50 mg/kg, PM21 dose-dependently decreased thrombosis weight (ED50, 314 mg/kg). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that combination preparations of PL and MF, especially their 2:1 combination, can increase antiplatelet and antithromboticeffects more than PL and MF alone, offering evidence for a potential novel combination antithrombotic therapy.

Carbamazepine degradation by photolysis and titanium dioxide photocatalysis.

We investigated the degradation of carbamazepine by photolysis/ultraviolet (UV)-C only and titanium dioxide photocatalysis. The degradation of carbamazepine by UV-only and titanium-dioxide-only (adsorption) reactions were inefficient, however, complete degradation of carbamazepine was observed by titanium dioxide photocatalysis within 30 min. The rate of degradation increased as initial carbamazepine concentration decreased, and the removal kinetics fit well with the Langmuir-Hinshelwood model. The addition of methanol, a radical scavenger, decreased carbamazepine removal, suggesting that the hydroxide radical played an important role during carbamazepine degradation. The addition of oxygen during titanium dioxide photocatalysis accelerated hydroxide radical production, thus improving mineralization activity. The photocatalytic degradation was more efficient at a higher pH, whereas the removal of carbamazepine and acridine (a major intermediate) were more efficient under aerobic conditions. The mineralization of carbamazepine during photocatalysis produced various ionic by-products such as ammonium and nitrate by way of nitrogen dioxide.

Identification of mating type loci and development of SCAR marker genetically linked to the B3 locus in Pleurotus eryngii.

In order to estimate how diverse the mating types in Pleurotus eryngii from different regions are, pairings between monokaryons derived from inter- and intragroups were done. Sixteen and 15 alleles were identified at loci A and B from the 12 strains. In the P. eryngii KNR2312, widely used for commercial production, four mating loci, A3, A4, B3, and B4, were determined. Those loci, except A3, were found in 4 strains out of 12 strains. To improve breeding efficiency, especially in mating type determination, RAPD and BSA were performed to screen for a mating type specific marker. The SCAR marker 13- 2(2100) was developed based on the RAPD-derived sequence typing B3 locus. The sequence analysis of 13-2(2100) revealed that it contained a conserved domain, the STE3 superfamily, and consensus sequences like the TATA box and GC box. It seems likely that the SCAR marker region is a part of the pheromone receptor gene.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs)-derived national discharge loads of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs).

The discharge of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) was investigated for 15 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), comprising 25% of total domestic wastewater and 23% of total industrial wastewater produced in Korea. PFCs concentrations in influent, effluent, and sludge were greater in industrial wastewater than in the majority of domestic wastewater. Individual PFCs were found to have differing industrial sources, with perfluorocarboxylates used in fabric/textiles, paper-mill, and dyeing industries, and perfluoroalkylsulfonates occurring in oil/chemical and metal-plating/processing industries. Total WWTP-derived national discharge loads were calculated based on the average concentrations in effluents and the total volume of wastewaters produced in Korea. The average WWTP-derived national discharge loads of individual PFCs were 0.04-0.61 ton/year, with 63% of perfluorooctanoate being from domestic wastewater, and 75% of perfluorooctanesulfonate being from industrial wastewater. These estimates accounted for the majority of national emissions, based on measurements in major river mouths, indicating the major contribution of WWTPs to PFC occurrence in Korean aquatic environments. Both the per capita emission factor (µg/capita/day) for domestic discharge, and area-normalized national discharge loads (g/capita/km(2)/day) for all wastewaters were several factors lower in Korea than in Japan or Europe, which is consistent with the lower levels of human exposure to PFCs in Korea.

NMR study of hydrogen exchange during the B-Z transition of a DNA duplex induced by the Zα domains of yatapoxvirus E3L.

The Yaba-like disease viruses (YLDV) are members of the Yatapoxvirus family and have double-stranded DNA genomes. The E3L protein, which is essential for pathogenesis in the vaccinia virus, consists of two domains: an N-terminal Z-DNA binding domain and a C-terminal RNA binding domain. The crystal structure of the E3L orthologue of YLDV (yabZα(E3L)) bound to Z-DNA revealed that the overall structure of yabZα(E3L) and its interaction with Z-DNA are very similar to those of hZα(ADAR1). Here we have performed NMR hydrogen exchange experiments on the complexes between yabZα(E3L) and d(CGCGCG)(2) with a variety of protein-to-DNA molar ratios. This study revealed that yabZα(E3L) could efficiently change the B-form helix of the d(CGCGCG)(2) to left-handed Z-DNA via the active-mono B-Z transition pathway like hZα(ADAR1).

Sequence discrimination of the Zα domain of human ADAR1 during B-Z transition of DNA duplexes.

The Zα domain of human ADAR1 (Zα(ADAR1)) preferentially binds Z-DNA rather than B-DNA with high binding affinity. Zα(ADAR1) binds to the Z-conformation of both non-CG-repeat DNA duplexes and a d(CGCGCG)(2) duplex similarly. We performed NMR experiments on complexes between the Zα(ADAR1) and non-CG-repeat DNA duplexes, d(CACGTG)(2) or d(CGTACG)(2), with a variety of protein-DNA molar ratios. Comparison of these results with those from the analysis of d(CGCGCG)(2) in the previous study suggests that Zα(ADAR1) exhibits the sequence preference of d(CGCGCG)(2)≫d(CACGTG)(2)>d(CGTACG)(2) through multiple sequence discrimination steps during the B-Z transition.

NMR spectroscopic elucidation of the B-Z transition of a DNA double helix induced by the Z alpha domain of human ADAR1.

The human RNA editing enzyme ADAR1 (double-stranded RNA deaminase I) deaminates adenine in pre-mRNA to yield inosine, which codes as guanine. ADAR1 has two left-handed Z-DNA binding domains, Z alpha and Z beta, at its NH(2)-terminus and preferentially binds Z-DNA, rather than B-DNA, with high binding affinity. The cocrystal structure of Z alpha(ADAR1) complexed to Z-DNA showed that one monomeric Z alpha(ADAR1) domain binds to one strand of double-stranded DNA and a second Z alpha(ADAR1) monomer binds to the opposite strand with 2-fold symmetry with respect to DNA helical axis. It remains unclear how Z alpha(ADAR1) protein specifically recognizes Z-DNA sequence in a sea of B-DNA to produce the stable Z alpha(ADAR1)-Z-DNA complex during the B-Z transition induced by Z alpha(ADAR1). In order to characterize the molecular recognition of Z-DNA by Z alpha(ADAR1), we performed circular dichroism (CD) and NMR experiments with complexes of Zalpha(ADAR1) bound to d(CGCGCG)(2) (referred to as CG6) produced at a variety of protein-to-DNA molar ratios. From this study, we identified the intermediate states of the CG6-Z alpha(ADAR1) complex and calculated their relative populations as a function of the Z alpha(ADAR1) concentration. These findings support an active B-Z transition mechanism in which the Z alpha(ADAR1) protein first binds to B-DNA and then converts it to left-handed Z-DNA, a conformation that is then stabilized by the additional binding of a second Z alpha(ADAR1) molecule.

Thermodynamics and kinetics for base pair opening in the DNA decamer duplexes containing cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer.

The cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) is one of the major classes of cytotoxic and carcinogenic DNA photoproducts induced by UV light. Hydrogen exchange rates of the imino protons were measured for various CPD-containing DNA duplexes to better understand the mechanism for CPD recognition by XPC-hHR23B. The results here revealed that double T.G mismatches in a CPD lesion significantly destabilized six consecutive base pairs compared to other DNA duplexes. This flexibility in a DNA duplex caused at the CPD lesions with double T.G mismatches might be the key factor for damage recognition by XPC-hHR23B.

Production of tropane alkaloids by small-scale bubble column bioreactor cultures of Scopolia parviflora adventitious roots.

The mass production of tropane alkaloids from adventitious root cultures of Scopolia parviflora, in small-scale bubble column bioreactor (BCB) was attempted. Adventitious roots of S. parviflora produced relatively enhanced levels of scopolamine and hyoscyamine in bioreactor compared to flask type cultures, and rapidly produced root clumps, with continuously increasing biomass throughout the culture period. The production of scopolamine and hyoscyamine in the top and bottom regions of root clumps were higher than in the core region. The adventitious root cultures of S. parviflora in the BCB required a relatively high level of aeration. The optimized conditions for the bioreactor culture growth and alkaloid production were found to be 3g of inoculum, on a fresh weight basis, a 15-day culture period and 0.4vvm of airflow. The elicitation by Staphylococus aureus increased the specific compound of scopolamine, while the production of hyoscyamine was slightly inhibited in BCB cultures.